Chapter 2 NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS

The Emergence of New Dynasties

Following the seventh century, significant political transformations occurred in the subcontinent with the rise of numerous new dynasties. Existing rulers often acknowledged powerful landlords or warrior chiefs as their subordinates, known as samantas. These samantas were expected to provide gifts, attend court, and offer military support to their overlords. As they accumulated power and wealth, some samantas asserted their independence and declared themselves as maha-samantas or maha-mandaleshvara.

A notable example of this transition is the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially subordinates to the Chalukyas of Karnataka, the Rashtrakuta chief Dantidurga overthrew his overlord in the mid-eighth century. He performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (golden womb), which, when conducted with the help of Brahmanas, was believed to grant the sacrificer Kshatriya status, even if they were not born into that caste.

In other instances, individuals from enterprising families utilized their military prowess to establish kingdoms. For example, Mayurasharman of the Kadamba dynasty and Harichandra of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, both Brahmanas, abandoned their traditional professions to take up arms and successfully founded kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan, respectively.

Administration in the Kingdoms

Many of these new rulers adopted grand titles like maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds) to project their authority. Despite these claims, they often shared power with their samantas and also with assemblies of peasants, traders, and Brahmanas.

Resources in these kingdoms were primarily obtained from producers like peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans, who were often compelled to contribute a portion of their produce. These contributions were sometimes termed as "rent," signifying the lord's ownership of the land. Taxes were also levied on traders.

The Chola inscriptions from Tamil Nadu detail over 400 types of taxes. Prominent among these were vetti (forced labour) and kadamai (land revenue). Taxes were also imposed on housing, the use of ladders, and property succession.

These collected resources were utilized to maintain the king's establishment, construct temples and forts, and finance wars. Wars were often waged to acquire wealth through plunder, gain access to land, and control trade routes.

The officials responsible for revenue collection were typically drawn from influential families, and their positions often became hereditary. Similarly, military positions were frequently held by close relatives of the king.

Prashastis and Land Grants

Prashastis were laudatory texts, often composed by learned Brahmanas who also assisted in administration. While they contained details that might not be factually accurate, they reveal how rulers wished to be perceived – as valiant and victorious warriors.

For instance, a prashasti found in Gwalior described the exploits of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king, highlighting his victories over various rulers and peoples. These texts served to enhance the ruler's prestige.

Rulers frequently rewarded Brahmanas with land grants, which were documented on copper plates. These grants not only provided land but also entitled the recipient to collect taxes from it, including those on judicial fines, betel leaves, woven cloth, and vehicles. The recipient could also undertake development activities on the land, such as digging wells and constructing canals, provided they managed water resources efficiently.

An example of such a record is a land grant from the Cholas, written in Sanskrit and Tamil, detailing the land's features and the rights conferred upon the grantee. The ring securing the plates bore the royal seal, signifying its authenticity.

The twelfth-century work by Kalhana, which documented the history of Kashmir's rulers, is notable for its critical approach. Kalhana utilized a variety of sources, including inscriptions, documents, eyewitness accounts, and earlier histories, to present a more nuanced historical narrative.

Warfare for Wealth

Each ruling dynasty was primarily based in a specific region but aspired to control other territories. The city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley was a highly coveted prize, leading to a prolonged "tripartite struggle" for its control among the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties.

Rulers also demonstrated their power and wealth by constructing large temples. Consequently, during conflicts, temples, which were often repositories of immense wealth, were frequently targeted.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, who ruled from 997 to 1030 CE, extended his control over parts of Central Asia, Iran, and northwestern India. He conducted annual raids on the subcontinent, targeting wealthy temples like Somnath in Gujarat. The wealth amassed from these raids was used to build a magnificent capital city in Ghazni. Sultan Mahmud also commissioned his court scholar, Al-Biruni, to write an account of the subcontinent, resulting in the "Kitab ul-Hind," a significant historical source. Al-Biruni consulted Sanskrit scholars for this work.

Other rulers engaged in warfare included the Chahamanas (Chauhans), who controlled the region around Delhi and Ajmer. They attempted to expand their influence but faced opposition from the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh. The most famous Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III, who initially defeated Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but was defeated by him the following year.

A Closer Look: The Cholas

Rise To Power

The Cholas emerged from a minor chiefly family, the Muttaraiyar, who controlled the Kaveri delta and were subordinates to the Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. In the mid-ninth century, Vijayalaya, from an ancient Chola chiefly family of Uraiyur, captured the delta from the Muttaraiyar. He founded the city of Thanjavur and built a temple dedicated to the goddess Nishumbhasudini.

Vijayalaya's successors expanded the kingdom by conquering neighboring regions, including the territories of the Pandya and Pallava dynasties. Rajaraja I, who ascended the throne in 985 CE, is considered the most powerful Chola ruler. He extended his control over most of these areas and reorganized the empire's administration. His son, Rajendra I, continued these policies, launching expeditions to the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, for which he developed a navy.

Splendid Temples And Bronze Sculpture

The Chola rulers, particularly Rajaraja and Rajendra, were renowned for constructing magnificent temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. These temples served not only as places of worship but also as centers of economic, social, and cultural activity. They were endowed with land, and the produce supported various specialists like priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, and dancers who often lived nearby. Chola art is particularly famous for its exquisite bronze sculptures, considered among the finest globally. These sculptures often depicted deities and sometimes devotees.

Agriculture and Irrigation

The Cholas achieved significant advancements in agriculture, especially in the Kaveri delta. The river's numerous channels frequently overflowed, depositing fertile silt on its banks, which greatly benefited agriculture, particularly rice cultivation. By the fifth or sixth century, this region was transformed for large-scale cultivation, involving the clearing of forests and leveling of land. Embankments were built to manage floods, and canals were constructed to irrigate fields, allowing for multiple harvests annually. Various irrigation methods, including digging wells and constructing large tanks for rainwater collection, were employed. The development of irrigation infrastructure required careful planning, labor organization, and equitable water distribution, in which both rulers and villagers actively participated.

The Administration of the Empire

The administrative structure of the Chola Empire was organized around settlements of peasants known as ur, which became prosperous due to advancements in irrigation agriculture. Groups of these villages formed larger units called nadu. The village councils and the nadu played crucial roles in administration, including dispensing justice and collecting taxes. Wealthy peasants from the Vellala caste held significant influence in the nadu, supervised by the central Chola government. High-ranking landowners were granted titles like muvendavelan and araiyar, signifying respect and entrusting them with important state offices.

Land categories mentioned in Chola inscriptions include vellanvagai (land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors), brahmadeya (land gifted to Brahmanas), shalabhoga (land for schools), devadana and tiruamattukkani (land gifted to temples), and pallichchhandam (land donated to Jaina institutions). Brahmana settlements, known as brahmadeya, were managed by assemblies called sabha, composed of prominent Brahmana landholders. These assemblies meticulously recorded their decisions on temple stone walls. In towns, associations of traders, known as nagarams, also performed administrative functions.

The Uttaramerur inscription provides details on the organization of the sabha, outlining eligibility criteria for its members. These included being a landowner, owning a home, being between 35 and 70 years of age, possessing knowledge of the Vedas, and being well-versed in administrative matters and honest. Members of committees could not serve consecutive terms, and those who hadn't submitted accounts were barred from contesting elections.